How to Drive More Efficiently

Used Cars Advantages

Do You Know Why cars break down?

Nothing lasts forever; any car eventually will start having problems. However, while some cars may provide you with few hundred thousands miles of trouble-free driving, others start having problems from the beginning. Why there is such a huge difference?

Sometimes cars start having problems after accidents. Sometimes it may be a factory defect or design flaw. Heavy conditions like, for example, driving only short trips without letting the engine to warm up fully also make the engine life shorter.

Corrosion is another factor - for example, park the car for a few months in place with high humidity and later it will probably have more problems than the vehicle driven all this time on daily basis.
Yet, lack of maintenance is one of the most often reason for a car to break down.

Poorly-maintained engine

Well-maintained engine

So, what's most important to keep your engine in a good shape?

- I guess, I won't say something new stating that regular oil changes is most important factor to keep the engine running. If you do it more often than suggested by manufacturer's schedule, that's even better.

- Avoid overheating the engine

- Changing spark plugs, air filter, timing belt and other items from maintenance schedule may save you from costly repairs.

- Fix any small problem right away before it causes serious damage.

How to keep the automatic transmission alive!

Automatic transmission cut in half.

What can damage your automatic transmission

Most of the transmission troubles start from overheating. Under heavy load, such as towing a heavy trailer, rocking the vehicle from the snow, having continuous stop and go traffic in hot weather, racing, etc. the transmission overheats. At higher temperatures the transmission fluid burns, losing its lubricating qualities and becomes oxidized leaving deposits all over inside the transmission. Exposed to the heat the rubber seals and gaskets inside the transmission become hardened causing leaks. The metal parts warp and lose their strength. All this, sooner or later, results in transmission failure. For example, I read a story about a persons that burned the transmission when he was spinning the wheels too hard trying to free his shiny Audi from the snow on the next day after he bought it!

However, overheating is not the only reason - sometimes transmission breaks down because of poor design, due to lack of maintenance or after being rebuilt by inexperienced technician. Few other reasons: harsh driving, too low or too high transmission fluid level or wrong transmission fluid type - a person I know added gear oil into the automatic transmission... guess, what happen? - the transmission died after 40 minutes of driving!

How to prevent the transmission from damage

- Regularly check your parking space for leaks. Doesn't matter, is it the engine oil leak, power steering fluid or transmission fluid; if you discover any, get it fixed before it caused something serious.

- Once in a while check the transmission fluid level and condition. Not all cars however have the automatic transmission dipstick, in some cars, for example, in late Volkswagen models, the transmission fluid can only be checked by the dealer. Consult with your owner's manual for details. If the transmission fluid level is too low, there is a leak somewhere that needs to be fixed.

- Change the fluid as often as it said in your owner's manual or when it becomes too dark (rather brown than red) or dirty.
Also, keep in mind that an automatic transmission can not be drained completely - there is always some transmission fluid left inside the transmission (the torque converter, in the valve body, etc.) which means you only can change about %60 of the fluid at once. This is one more reason to change it more often.

- Use only the same type of the transmission fluid as specified in the owner's manual or on the dipstick. Some vehicles (e.g Dodge Caravan) are very sensitive to fluid type

- Never shift to the Reverse or Parking until the car comes to a complete stop.

- Never shift from the Parking mode when engine rpm is higher than normal idle.

- Always hold a brakes down when shifting from Parking.

- The automatic transmission can be damaged if towing with the drive wheels on the road. Always use a dolly or place powered wheels on the towing platform (if the vehicle is front wheel drive - tow it from the front leaving rear wheels on the road.

How to use overdrive

I'd recommend to go for a service to your car make dealer - they have original parts, they know exactly what type of the fluid to use and their technicians are highly trained to service particular vehicle model. Even if you go to the independent garage, always ask to use original parts - sometimes, the after-market parts are not of as good quality as original.

When it's time to go to the transmission shop

If you experience any problems with your transmission such as leaks, noises, problems with shifting, etc. - don't wait until the problem will become worse and car will finally stop somewhere on a highway, visit your trusted local transmission shop. Automatic transmission problems never disappear by themselves. Also, when going for the repair, try to explain to service person more detailed - what exactly problem you experience, when it happens, what does it look like. It will be easier for them to repair the transmission. Before going to the transmission shop for the repair ask them about the warranty - the longer warranty they will give you, the better will be the repair.

WHAT DOES AN AUTO MECHANIC DO?

An auto mechanic (or motor mechanic in Australian English) is a mechanic who specialises in automobile maintenance, repair, and sometimes modification. An automobile repair shop (also known as a garage) is a place where automobiles are repaired by auto mechanics. A mechanic may be knowledgeable in working on all parts of a variety of car makes or may specialize either in a specific area or in a specific make of car. In repairing cars, their main role is to diagnose the problem accurately and quickly. They often have to quote prices for their customers before commencing work or after partial disassembly for inspection. The mechanic uses both electronic means of gathering data as well as their hands, ears, eyes and nose. Their job may involve the repair of a specific part or the replacement of one or more parts as assemblies.Basic vehicle maintenance is a fundamental part of a mechanic's work in some countries, while in others they are only consulted when a vehicle is already showing signs of malfunction. Preventative maintenance is also a fundamental part of a mechanic's job, but this is not possible in the case of vehicles that are not regularly maintained by a mechanic. One misunderstood aspect of preventative maintenance is scheduled replacement of various parts, which occurs before failure to avoid far more expensive damage. Because this means that parts are replaced before any problem is observed, many vehicle owners will not understand why the expense is necessary.With the rapid advancement in technology, the mechanic's job has evolved from mechanical to electronic technology. Because vehicles today posses complex computer and electronic systems, mechanics need to have a broader base of knowledge than in the past. Lately, the term "auto mechanic" is being used less and less frequently and is being replaced by the euphemistic title “automotive service technician”. Fading quickly is the day of the 'shade tree mechanic', who needed little knowledge of today's computerized systems. Due to the increasingly labyrinthine nature of the technology that is now incorporated into automobiles, most automobile dealerships now provide sophisticated diagnostic computers to each technician, without which they would be unable to diagnose or repair a multitude of common failures.Education
In the United States, several programs and schools that offer training for those interested in pursuing competencies as an automotive mechanic or as an auto technician already exist. A few of the aspects usually taught those studying for this career are: powertrain repair and diagnosis, emissions, and suspension. Most mechanics are ASE certified, which is a standardized method of testing skill level. The National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF) is responsible for evaluating technician training programs against standards developed by the automotive industry and recommend qualifying programs for certification. NATEF certifies programs in four different categories: automotive, auto body, trucks (diesel technology) and alternative fuels. Automotive Youth Educational Systems (AYES) is a non-profit partnership of automotive manufacturers, dealers, and high schools/tech prep schools that aims to encourage young people to consider careers in retail automotive service, and prepare them for entry-level career positions or advanced studies in automotive technology. The technology used in automobiles changes very rapidly and the mechanic must be prepared to learn these new technologies and systems. The auto mechanic has a physically demanding job, often exposed to temperature extremes and well as lifting heavy objects and staying in uncomfortable positions for extended periods as well as exposure to gasoline, solvents and other toxic chemicals.

WHAT IS THE AAA?
The AAA (usually read triple-A, or sometimes three As), formerly known as the American Automobile Association, is an American not-for-profit automobile lobby group and service organization, with their national headquarters based in Heathrow, Florida.History
The American Automobile Association was founded on March 4, 1902 in Cleveland, Ohio as a response to a lack of roads and highways suitable for autos. The organization originally had 1000 charter members, and these original members were generally of an auto enthusiast demographic. AAA’s membership base is and was formed from a number of local and regional motor clubs, and these auto clubs combined forces to create a more powerful organization.

The association expanded its scope of services as years progressed. The first AAA road maps were published in 1905, and AAA began printing hotel guides in 1917. AAA began its School Safety Patrol Program in 1920, and many driver safety programs followed in the decades to come. The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, which conducts a large volume of studies regarding motorist safety, was established as separate entity in 1947. AAA was a sanctioning organization for automobile racing in the United States until 1956. It sanctioned many races, including the Indianapolis 500. After the Le Mans 1955 disaster, AAA decided that auto racing distracted from its primary goals, and the United States Automobile Club was formed to take over the race sanctioning/officiating.Current Operations
Members belong to an individual club (such as AAA Mid-Atlantic,the California State Automobile Association, the Automobile Club of Southern California,AAA Oregon/Idaho, or Auto Club South, for example) and the clubs in turn own AAA. The member clubs have arranged a reciprocal service system so that members of any participating club are able to receive member services from any other affiliate club. Member dues finance all club services as well as the operations of the national organization. From the standpoint of the consumer, AAA clubs primarily provide emergency road services to members. These services, which include everything from lockouts, winching, tire changes, automotive first aid, and towing, are handled by private local towing companies contracted by a state AAA club. Many AAA clubs have an automotive fleet division serving large metro areas, while private towing companies cover the surplus call volume by area. Recently, certain clubs have implemented an "on the go" diagnostic/installation automotive battery program, which offers members an additional service to an ever more demanding commute. This is part of AAA's vision for the future of automotive services, termed Go, not Tow. Clubs also distribute road maps and travel publications, and rate restaurants and hotels according to a "diamond" scale (one to five). Many offices sell automobile liability insurance, provide travel agency, auto-registration and notary services. AAA also offers member discounts at over 100 partners including many hotels, Amtrak, Hertz rental cars, Jiffy Lube, LensCrafters, and Payless ShoeSource through its "Show Your Card & Save" program.

WHAT IS AN AUTOMOBILE BREAKDOWN?

A vehicle breakdown is the mechanical failure of a motor vehicle in such a way that the underlying problem prevents the vehicle from being operated at all, or impedes the vehicle's operation so much, that it is very difficult, nearly impossible, or else dangerous to operate. Vehicle breakdowns can occur for a large number of reasons. Depending on the nature of the problem, the vehicle may or may not need to be towed to an automobile repair shop.Total breakdown
A total breakdown is when the vehicle becomes totally immobile and cannot be driven even a short distance to reach a repair shop, thereby necessitating a tow. This can occur for a variety of reasons, including complete engine failure, or a dead starter or battery, though a dead battery may be able to be temporarily resolved with a jump start. When a total breakdown occurs, the motorist may be able to have the service paid for by a roadside assistance plan. This may be available through an organization like AAA, the vehicle's manufacturer, the vehicle insurance policy, or in some cases, another service the driver subscribes to, such as a mobile phone carrier.

Partial breakdown
In a partial breakdown, the vehicle may still be operable, but its operation may become more limited or more dangerous, or else its continued operation may contribute to further damage to the vehicle. Often, when this occurs, it may be possible to drive the vehicle to a garage, thereby avoiding a tow. Some common causes of a partial breakdown include overheating, brake failure, or frequent stalling. With other problems, the driver may be able to operate the vehicle seemingly normally for some time, but the vehicle will need an eventual repair. These include grinding brakes, rough idle (often caused by the need for a tune-up), or poor shock absorption. Many vehicle owners with personal economic difficulty or a busy schedule may wait longer than they should to get necessary repairs made to their vehicles, thereby increasing damage or else causing more danger.

WHAT IS A HYBRID VEHICLE?
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle.[1] Common power sources include: * On-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fueled power source (internal combustion engine or fuel cell) * Air and internal combustion engines * Human powered bicycle with electric motor or gas engine assist * Human-powered or sail boat with electric power The term most commonly refers to Hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) which include internal combustion engines and electric motors.Environmental issues
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by four elements of a typical hybrid design: 1. recapturing energy normally wasted during braking etc.; 2. having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy; 3. shutting down the gasoline or diesel engine during traffic stops or while coasting or other idle periods; 4. relying on both the gasoline (or diesel engine) and the electric motors for peak power needs resulting in a smaller gasoline or diesel engine sized more for average usage rather than peak power usage. These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds,[2] in comparison to conventional gasoline or diesel powered engine vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.

Hybrid types by engines

Hybrid-electric petroleum vehicles
When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, and Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Mercury Mariner Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel engines, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power electric motors. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.

Continuously Recharged Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles BEVs can be recharged while the user drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process - on the highway - and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long as you stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally prohibited. The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, unfortunately outside of some cities, is not widely distributed. Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, gasoline or other taxes. Hybrid fuel (dual mode)
In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy input types ("fuels") using the same tank and engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles: * Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been announced. * Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels (petroleum and biofuels) in one tank — typically gasoline and bioethanol or biobutanol, though diesel-biodiesel vehicles would also qualify. Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from each other and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG-NG) flexible fuel system. * Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into bio-diesel. * Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included.

Plug-in Hybrid Electrical Vehicles (PHEV)
The latest wrinkle in the rapidly evolving hybrid technology is the plug-in Hybrid Electrical Vehicles--PHEV. In this gasoline electrical hybrid its battery pack is upgraded with a larger capacity battery pack (usually Li-ion) that is recharged by both a battery charger hooked into the electrical grid and the gasoline engine only if required. The car runs on battery power only for the first 10 to 60 miles [16-100 km] with the gasoline engine available for faster acceleration etc. After the battery is nearly fully discharged the car reverts to the gasoline engine to recharge the battery and/or return the car to the charging station. This may get around the fundamental obstacle that has killed nearly all pure electric cars--the typical battery pack can carry about as much energy as 1-2 gallons of gas. Fuel costs (ignoring conversion costs), in principle, may be as low as 5 cents/mile. Its not clear yet whether converting an existing hybrid car will ever pay for itself in fuel savings--yet. The biggest problem is finding a good, cheap high energy battery pack--the same problem that has plagued the pure electrical car. If everyone plugged into the utility grid to charge up their car this would seem to be merely displacing the gasoline/diesel combustion problem to the typical coal powered electrical generating plant. But, if cars were recharged late at night this would allow the base load of the electrical system to be more efficient with a much more even base load and electrical power can also be generated by clean nuclear, wind, hydro, tide etc, power. Since most travel is about 30 miles/day this may be the cleanest personal transportation system presently available. There are a "cottage" conversion industry, several large auto industry groups (GM, Toyota, Mercedes etc.) and "serious" studies by the Department of Energy investigating this system. There are no large car maker's cars for sale--yet (late 2007). The typical "cottage" industry car "converted" is a Toyota Prius (at $5k-$40k) since it is a full hybrid with enough power in its electrical system to maintain typical city speeds. AFS Trinity Power's Extreme Hybrid(TM) demonstrator (built by Ricardo Plc) was recently unveiled at the North American International Auto Show.

ABOUT A DEISEL ENGINE?
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle. Invented in 1892 by German engineer Rudolf Diesel, it was based on the hot bulb engine design and patented on February 23, 1893. A diesel engine uses compression ignition, a process by which fuel is injected after the air is compressed in the combustion chamber causing the fuel to self ignite. By contrast, a gasoline engine utilizes the Otto cycle, in which fuel and air are mixed before entering the combustion chamber and then ignited by a spark plug.Patent controversy
While Rudolf Diesel is credited with the invention the diesel engine, Herbert Akroyd Stuart and Charles Richard Binney had already patented a compression ignition engine designed to run on coal dust. The credit for the invention thus hinges on whether compression ignition or oil fuel is considered the defining property. Diesel's patent (No. 7241) was filed in 1892.[1] However, Herbert Akroyd Stuart and Charles Richard Binney had already obtained a patent (No. 7146) in 1890 entitled: "Improvements in Engines Operated by the Explosion of Mixtures of Combustible Vapour or Gas and Air" which described the world's first compression-ignition engine.[2] Akroyd-Stuart constructed the first compression-ignition oil engine in Bletchley, England in 1891 and leased the rights to Richard Hornsby & Sons, who by July 1892, five years before Diesel's prototype, had a diesel engine working for Newport Sanitary Authority. By 1896, diesel tractors and locomotives were being built in some quantity in Grantham. Importantly, Diesel's airblast injection system did not become part of subsequent "diesel" engines. From around 1910, manufacturers building diesel engines under patent from MAN began building engines with 'solid' injection systems, where fuel is delivered to the cylinder by a high pressure jerk-pump rather than compressed air. This system was invented by Herbert Akroyd Stuart and used on Ruston-built oil engines. MAN continued to build engines to Diesel's original design into the 1920s. By this time Robert Bosch had developed the spring-loaded fuel injector, which provided greater accuracy than the simple nozzle of earlier systems. All mechanical-injection diesel engines built from the 1920s onwards used some form of jerk-pump and spring-nozzle injection. No engine has been built to Diesel's original design since the 1930s.How diesel engines work
In mechanical terms, the internal construction of a diesel engine is similar to its gasoline counterpart—components such as pistons, connecting rods and a crankshaft are present in both. Like a gasoline engine, a diesel engine may operate on a four-stroke cycle (similar to the gasoline unit's Otto cycle), or a two-stroke cycle, albeit with significant dissimilarity to the gasoline equivalent. In both cases, the principal differences lie in the handling of air and fuel, and the method of ignition. A diesel engine relies upon compression ignition to burn its fuel, instead of the spark plug used in a gasoline engine. If air is compressed to a high degree, its temperature will increase to a point where fuel will burn upon contact. This principle is used in both four-stroke and two-stroke diesel engines to produce power. Unlike a gasoline engine, which draws an air/fuel mixture into the cylinder during the intake stroke, the diesel aspirates air alone. Following intake, the cylinder is sealed and the air charge is highly compressed to heat it to the temperature required for ignition. Whereas a gasoline engine's compression ratio is rarely greater than 11:1 to avoid damaging preignition, a diesel's compression ratio is usually between 16:1 and 25:1. This extremely high level of compression causes the air temperature to increase to 700 to 900 degrees Celsius (1300 to 1650 degrees Fahrenheit). If a piece of steel wire to be heated to that level it would glow cherry red. As the piston approaches top dead center (TDC), fuel oil is injected into the cylinder at high pressure, causing the fuel charge to be atomized. Owing to the high air temperature in the cylinder, ignition instantly occurs, causing a rapid and considerable increase in cylinder temperature and pressure (generating the characteristic Diesel "knock"). The piston is driven downward with great force, pushing on the connecting rod and turning the crankshaft. When the piston nears bottom dead center the spent combustion gases are expelled from the cylinder to prepare for the next cycle. In many cases, the exhaust gases will be used to drive a turbocharger, which will increase the volume of the intake air charge, resulting in cleaner combustion and greater efficiency. The above sequence generally describes how a diesel operates. However, there are striking differences between the four-stroke and two-stroke versions:Four-Stroke
The cycle starts with the intake stroke, which begins when the piston is near top dead center. The intake valve is opened, creating a passage from the exterior of the engine (generally through an air filter assembly), through the intake port in the cylinder head and into the cylinder itself. As the piston moves toward bottom dead center, a partial vacuum develops, causing air to enter the cylinder. In the case of a turbocharged engine, the air is rammed into the cylinder at higher than atmospheric pressure. As the piston passes through bottom dead center, the intake valve closes, sealing the cylinder. The compression stroke begins as the piston passes through bottom dead center and starts upward. Compression will continue until the piston approaches top dead center. The power stroke occurs as the piston reaches top dead center at the end of the compression stroke. At this time, fuel injection occurs, resulting in combustion and the production of useful work. The final stroke is the exhaust stroke, which begins as the piston approaches bottom top dead center following ignition. The exhaust valve in the cylinder head is opened and as the piston starts upward, the spent combustion gases are forced out of the cylinder. Near top dead center the intake valve will start to open before the exhaust valve is fully closed, a condition referred to as valve overlap. Overlap produces a flow of cooling intake air over the exhaust valve, prolonging its life. Following the completion of the exhaust stroke the cycle will begin anew.

Two-Stroke
Intake begins when the piston is near bottom dead center. Air is admitted to the cylinder through ports in the cylinder wall (there are no intake valves). Since the piston is moving downward at this time, aspiration due to atmospheric pressure isn't possible. Therefore a mechanical blower or hybrid turbocharger (a turbocharger that is mechanically driven from the crankshaft at low engine speeds) is employed to charge the cylinder with air. In the early phase of intake, the air charge is also used to force out any remaining combustion gases from the previous power stroke, a process referred to as scavenging. As the piston passes through bottom dead center, the exhaust valves will be closed and, owing to the pressure generated by the blower or turbocharger, the cylinder will be filled with air. Once the piston starts upward, the air intake ports in the cylinder walls will be covered, sealing the cylinder. At this point, compression will commence. Note that exhaust and intake actually occur in one stroke, the period during which the piston is near the bottom of the cylinder. As the piston rises, compression takes place and near top dead center, fuel injection will occur, resulting in combustion, driving the piston downward. As the piston moves downward in the cylinder it will reach a point where the exhaust valves will be opened to expel the combustion gases. Continued movement of the piston will expose the air intake ports in the cylinder wall, and the cycle will start anew. Note that the cylinder will fire on each revolution, as opposed to the four-stroke engine, in which the cylinder fires on every other revolution. Cold weather and diesels
In cold weather, diesel engines can be difficult to start because the mass of the cylinder block and cylinder head absorb the heat of compression, thus preventing ignition. Spark ignition engines undergo the same problem, though they have the added benefit of a spark plug to help cause ignition. The main reason diesel engines take a long time to warm up in cold weather is the lack of a throttle. Spark ignition engines are throttled, so only the right amount of air comes in at a time. This is less efficient, but spark plugs only work near the stoichiometric, or the proper ratio of air to fuel for complete and most efficient combustion, mixture of fuel and air. Diesel engines accept a cylinder full of air and measure in the right amount of fuel. So each time the intake valve on a diesel opens, a full charge of cold air enters the cylinder. This cools the cylinder back down. The heat gained from each explosion therefore can only cause a gain in temperature that is much, much smaller than it would be in a spark ignition engine.Some engines use small electric heaters called glow plugs inside the cylinder to help ignite fuel when starting. Some even use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet air until the engine reaches operating temperature. Engine block heaters (electric resistive heaters in the engine block) connected to the utility grid are often used when an engine is turned off for extended periods (more than an hour) in cold weather to reduce startup time and engine wear. In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods were used. Some engines, such as Detroit Diesels and Lister-Petter engines, used a system to introduce small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion. Sabb marine engines and Field Marshall tractors (amongst others) used slow-burning solid-fuel 'cigarettes' which were fitted into the cylinder head as a primitive glow plug. Lucas developed the 'Thermostart', where an electrical heating element was combined with a small fuel valve. Diesel fuel slowly dripped from the valve onto the hot element and ignited. The flame heated the inlet manifold and when the engine was turned over the flame was drawn into the combustion chamber to start combustion. The most extreme cold-starting system was probably that developed by International Harvester for their WD-40 tractor of the 1930s. This had a 7-litre 4-cylinder engine which ran as a diesel, but was started as a petrol engine. The cylinder head had valves which opened for a portion of the compression stroke to reduce the effective compression ratio, and a magneto produced the spark. An automatic ratchet system automatically disengaged the ignition system and closed the valves once the engine had run for 30 seconds. The operator then switched off the petrol fuel system and opened the throttle on the diesel injection system. Such systems fell out of favour when electrical glow plug systems proved to be the simplest to operate and produce. Direct-injection systems advanced to the extent that cold-starting systems were not needed and then electronic fuel injection systems rendered most cold-start system unnecessary.Diesel fuel is also prone to "waxing" or "gelling" in cold weather, terms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build up in the fuel (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running. Low-output electric heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines are used to solve this problem. Also, most engines have a "spill return" system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank. Fuel technology has improved recently so that with special additives waxing no longer occurs in all but the coldest climates. A vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical or electronic governor, which limits the speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel delivery. Unlike Otto-cycle engines, incoming air is not throttled and a diesel engine without a governor can easily overspeed, resulting in its destruction. Mechanically governed fuel injection systems are driven by the engine's gear train. These systems use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed. Modern, electronically controlled diesel engines control fuel delivery and limit the maximum rpm by use of an electronic control module (ECM) or electronic control unit (ECU). The ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal, as well as other operating parameters such as intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature, from a sensor and controls the amount of fuel and start of injection timing through electric or hydraulic actuators to maximize power and efficiency and minimize emissions. Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimizing emissions, and maximizing fuel economy (efficiency), of the engine. The timing is usually measured in units of crank angle of the piston before top dead center (TDC). For example, if the ECM/ECU initiates fuel injection when the piston is 10 degrees before TDC, the start of injection, or timing, is said to be 10° BTDC. Optimal timing will depend on the engine design as well as its speed and load. Advancing the start of injection (injecting before the piston reaches TDC) results in higher in-cylinder pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, but also results in elevated engine noise and increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions due to higher combustion temperatures. On the other hand, delayed start of injection causes incomplete combustion, reduced fuel efficiency and an increase in black exhaust smoke, containing a considerable amount of particulate matter (PM) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC).Advantages and disadvantages versus spark-ignition engines
Power and fuel economy Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline (petrol) engines of the same power, resulting in lower fuel consumption. A common margin is 40% more miles per gallon for an efficient turbodiesel. For example, the current model Škoda Octavia, using Volkswagen Group engines, has a combined Euro rating of 38 miles per US gallon (6.2 L/100 km) for the 102 bhp (76 kW) petrol engine and 54 mpg (4.4 L/100 km) for the 105 bhp (78 kW) diesel engine. However, such a comparison doesn't take into account that diesel fuel is denser and contains about 15% more energy by volume. Although the calorific value of the fuel is slightly lower at 45.3 MJ/kg (megajoules per kilogram) than gasoline at 45.8 MJ/kg, liquid diesel fuel is significantly denser than liquid gasoline. When this is taken into account, diesel fuel has a higher energy density than petrol; this volumetric measure is the main concern of many people,[attribution needed] as diesel fuel is sold by volume, not weight, and must be transported and stored in tanks of fixed size. Adjusting the numbers to account for the energy density of diesel fuel, one finds the overall energy efficiency of the aforementioned paragraph is still about 20% greater for the diesel version, despite the weight penalty of the diesel engine. When comparing engines of relatively low power for the vehicle's weight (such as the 75 hp VW Golf), the diesel's overall energy efficiency advantage is reduced further but still between 10 and 15 percent.

While higher compression ratio is helpful in raising efficiency, diesel engines are much more economical than gasoline (petrol) engines when at low power and at engine idle. Unlike the petrol engine, diesels lack a butterfly valve (throttle) in the inlet system, which closes at idle. This creates parasitic drag on the incoming air, reducing the efficiency of petrol/gasoline engines at idle. Due to their lower heat losses, diesel engines have a lower risk of gradually overheating if left idling for long periods of time. In many applications, such as marine, agriculture, and railways, diesels are left idling unattended for many hours or sometimes days. These advantages are especially attractive in locomotives (see dieselization). Naturally aspirated diesel engines are heavier than gasoline engines of the same power for two reasons. The first is that it takes a larger displacement diesel engine to produce the same power as a gasoline engine. This is essentially because the diesel must operate at lower engine speeds.[5] Diesel fuel is injected just before ignition, leaving the fuel little time to reach all the oxygen in the cylinder. In the gasoline engine, air and fuel are mixed for the entire compression stroke, ensuring complete mixing even at higher engine speeds. The second reason for the greater weight of a diesel engine is it must be stronger to withstand the higher combustion pressures needed for ignition, and the shock loading from the detonation of the ignition mixture. As a result, the reciprocating mass (the piston and connecting rod), and the resultant forces to accelerate and to decelerate these masses, are substantially higher the heavier, the bigger and the stronger the part, and the laws of diminishing returns of component strength, mass of component and inertia — all come into play to create a balance of offsets, of optimal mean power output, weight and durability.

Yet it is this same build quality that has allowed some enthusiasts to acquire significant power increases with turbocharged engines through fairly simple and inexpensive modifications. A gasoline engine of similar size cannot put out a comparable power increase without extensive alterations because the stock components would not be able to withstand the higher stresses placed upon them. Since a diesel engine is already built to withstand higher levels of stress, it makes an ideal candidate for performance tuning with little expense. However, it should be said that any modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put through a diesel engine will increase its operating temperature which will reduce its life and increase service requirements. These are issues with newer, lighter, high performance diesel engines which aren't "overbuilt" to the degree of older engines and are being pushed to provide greater power in smaller engines. The addition of a turbocharger or supercharger to the engine greatly assists in increasing fuel economy and power output, mitigating the fuel-air intake speed limit mentioned above for a given engine displacement. Boost pressures can be higher on diesels than gasoline engines, due to the latter's susceptibility to knock, and the higher compression ratio allows a diesel engine to be more efficient than a comparable spark ignition engine. Because the burned gases are expanded further in a diesel engine cylinder, the exhaust gas is cooler, meaning turbochargers require less cooling, and can be more reliable, than on spark-ignition engines. The increased fuel economy of the diesel engine over the gasoline engine means that the diesel produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) per unit distance. Recently, advances in production and changes in the political climate have increased the availability and awareness of biodiesel, an alternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a much lower net-sum emission of CO2, due to the absorption of CO2 by plants used to produce the fuel.

The two main factors that held diesel engine back in private vehicles until quite recently were their low power outputs and high noise levels, characterised by knock or clatter, especially at low speeds and when cold. This noise is caused by "piston slap", the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber slamming the cold-contracted piston into the cylinder wall. The tolerances between the piston and cylinder wall are greater at cold temperatures to allow expansion at higher temperatures. A combination of improved mechanical technology (such as two-stage injectors which fire a short "pilot charge" of fuel into the cylinder to warm the combustion chamber before delivering the main fuel charge) and electronic control (which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it for all speeds and temperatures) have partially mitigated these problems in the latest generation of common-rail designs. Poor power and narrow torque bands have been helped by the use of turbochargers and intercoolers.Emissions
Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel in excess air even at full load, at which point the quantity of fuel injected per cycle is still about 50% lean of stoichiometric. However, they can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust, which consists of unburned carbon compounds. This is often caused by worn injectors, which do not atomize the fuel sufficiently, or a faulty engine management system, allowing more fuel to be injected than can be burned completely in the available time. The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the "black smoke limit", beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely combusted; as the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric it is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke, so this is only done in specialised applications (such as tractor pulling) where these disadvantages are of little concern. Likewise, when starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency is reduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke. The result is that fuel is not combusted fully, resulting in blue/white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine has warmed through. This is especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermally efficient. With electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection sequence can be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection can have manual control to alter the timing, or multi-phase electronically-controlled glow plugs, that stay on for a period after start-up to ensure clean combustion — the plugs are automatically switched to a lower power to prevent them burning out. Particles of the size normally called PM10 (particles of 10 micrometres or smaller) have been implicated in health problems, especially in cities. Some modern diesel engines feature diesel particulate filters, which catch the black soot and when saturated are automatically regenerated by burning the particles. Other problems associated with the exhaust gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) can be mitigated with further investment and equipment; some diesel cars now have catalytic converters in the exhaust.

Power and torque
For commercial uses requiring towing, load carrying and other tractive tasks, diesel engines tend to have better torque characteristics. Diesel engines tend to have their torque peak quite low in their speed range (usually between 1600 – 2000 rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a larger engine used in a truck). This provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and, crucially, allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at low speeds than a petrol engine, making them much more economical for these applications. This characteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so most modern diesels used in such vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers and shorter piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of torque over the engine's speed range, typically peaking at around 2500 – 3000 rpm.

Reliability
The lack of an electrical ignition system greatly improves the reliability. The high durability of a diesel engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (see above) as well as the diesel's combustion cycle, which creates less-violent changes in pressure when compared to a spark-ignition engine, a benefit that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds in diesels. Diesel fuel is a better lubricant than gasoline so is less harmful to the oil film on piston rings and cylinder bores; it is routine for diesel engines to cover 250,000 miles (400 000 km) or more without a rebuild. Unfortunately, due to the greater compression force required and the increased weight of the stronger components, starting a diesel engine is a harder task. More torque is required to push the engine through compression. Either an electrical starter or an air start system is used to start the engine turning. On large engines, pre-lubrication and slow turning of an engine, as well as heating, are required to minimize the amount of engine damage during initial start-up and running. Some smaller military diesels can be started with an explosive cartridge, called a Coffman starter, which provides the extra power required to get the machine turning. In the past, Caterpillar and John Deere used a small gasoline pony motor in their tractors to start the primary diesel motor. The pony motor heated the diesel to aid in ignition and utilized a small clutch and transmission to actually spin up the diesel engine. Even more unusual was an International Harvester design in which the diesel motor had its own carburetor and ignition system, and started on gasoline. Once warmed up, the operator moved two levers to switch the motor to diesel operation, and work could begin. These engines had very complex cylinder heads, with their own gasoline combustion chambers, and in general were vulnerable to expensive damage if special care was not taken (especially in letting the engine cool before turning it off). As mentioned above, diesel engines tend to have more torque at lower engine speeds than gasoline engines. However, diesel engines tend to have a narrower power band than gasoline engines. Naturally-aspirated diesels tend to lack power and torque at the top of their speed range. This narrow band is a reason why a vehicle such as a truck may have a gearbox with as many as 18 or more gears, to allow the engine's power to be used effectively at all speeds. Turbochargers tend to improve power at high engine speeds, superchargers do the same at lower speeds, and variable geometry turbochargers improve the engine's performance equally (or make the torque curve flatter).

HOW TO BUY A CAR !Used car or new

By purchasing a used car, you can save a lot of money. A new car depreciates quickly in the first few years and after 3 years, it is worth only about 60-70% of the original price. In fact, as soon as you leave the dealership, your new vehicle is suddenly worth $1000-$2000 less. It’s true in general, a new car requires less maintenance in first few years and most of the problems occurred within the original warranty coverage period will be covered by the car manufacturer. Yet, buying a new car does not always mean the buyer will get perfection. A new car may come with problems associated with poor design or manufacturing defects that may have been already repaired during the warranty coverage period if it's a used car. The same is true for all kinds of recalls and service campaigns.

Buying a used car is still a bit of a gamble - there is no guarantee that the car is accident-free, has real mileage, and was properly maintained. There may be some hidden problems like a worn out automatic transmission, or engine problems that may not have been obvious when you test-drove the car. Maintenance costs are higher for a used car and manufacturer's warranty may be already expired. However, used cars are more reliable these days and there are number of ways to reduce the risks associated with used car buying. You can check the used car history records at CARFAX Records Check.

First, you may wish to check if there is any record available, it's free: Free CARFAX Record Check [it shows you how many records available for the VIN number you enter, it's free. If you want to see those records, you need to pay] and then go directly to: Order CARFAX Vehicle History Reports

If the car qualifies, you can buy an extended warranty to protect yourself from unexpected repair costs. You also can opt for a manufacturer-certified used vehicle - many manufacturers now offer late model used cars under Certified Pre-owned programs where they inspect and recondition qualified used cars and often provide an additional warranty coverage with them.

Safety There is no perfectly safe car, but certain models can protect you better in case of a crash.
Some vehicles offer features that may help you to avoid an accident in the first place. You can compare crash test ratings and find other car safety related information online at:

NHTSA - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration website where you can find automobile safety information, auto crash testing, statistics, recalls and more.

SaferCar.gov - crash-test and rollover ratings for specific models by NHTSA

IIHS - the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety website where you can compare frontal offset and side impact crash test results as well as Injury, Collision & Theft Losses and Fatality rates for different cars.
Reliability Reliability is one of the most important factors to consider if you decided to go for a used car. Not all cars are the same. Some models are proven to be very reliable, others are known for constant problems. Since it is a used car, the original warranty coverage is probably over and you want the model that is more reliable. There is a number of resources where you can check reliability ratings of certain models:

MSN Autos - follow the link "Used cars".

J.D. Power and Associates - they offer new and used car ratings.

Consumer Reports - provides excellent data (paid subscription required)

However, be aware, even most reliable model car won't last long if not maintained properly.

Fuel economy With unpredictable gas prices, choosing the more fuel-efficient vehicle will help you to save money at the pump. Do you know that the difference in annual fuel costs between two different vehicles could be as high as $1500 - $2000?
Economical cars pollute less, which is good for the environment. By choosing the more economical vehicle you are helping to fight global warming.
In addition, in some localities, there might be tax incentives for fuel-efficient cars, and penalties for gas guzzlers; you may want to check if any of these will apply in your state or province.
You can compare fuel economy and pollution ratings of different cars following links below:

For US: Fuel Economy

For Canada: The Office of Energy Efficiency.

Cost of insurance The cost of insurance varies a lot depending on the make, year, model and even the color of the car, as well as driver's experience and many other factors. I definitely recommended to get insurance quotes before buying a car. Don't assume your current insurance company gives you the best rate, shop around, check quotes from different companies. Here are some websites where you can receive car insurance quote online:

US Online Auto Insurance quotes:

• GEICO - according to their website, GEICO is the fourth-largest private passenger auto insurer in the United States. You can get insurance quote online.

• Electric Insurance Company Check insurance quote online.

• 21st Century Insurance Company Online quotes in 15 States: California, Arizona, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Texas, Florida, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, Wisconsin and New York.

• AIG Auto Insurance no obligation online quote. AIG is the largest underwriters of commercial and industrial insurance in the United States.

• Insurance.com - compare auto insurance quotes from different companies.
Considering a car with Diesel engine Cars with a diesel engine consume almost half as much fuel as the same car with a gasoline engine. However, there is a price to pay: Diesel engines are a bit noisier and there always will be that not very pleasant smell from the exhaust. Some Diesel engine vehicles require only synthetic oil which means higher maintenance cost. There are only few passenger cars with Diesel engine currently available in North America: Volkswagen and Mercedes-Benz. However, with constantly improving Diesel technology and growing fuel prices more cars may come.
Four-cylinder or six Four-cylinder engines usually provide better fuel economy, but V6 and V8 engines generally have more power and little more durability. The V6 (or V8) engine will be a good choice if you want to use your car for towing a trailer. For normal city driving, a four-cylinder engine will do the job.

Gas or Hybrid / Electric Car

Is it worth to buy a car 'as is'? I wouldn't advice to buy such a car even if the price seems to be very cheap and here is why:
Usually used car like this needs a lot more repairs than it may seem at the first look. Just a fresh example:
A friend of mine bought twelve years old Honda 'as is. It was drivable, but "minor body repair" was needed. It was very cheap though - only $1200. During the safety test more problems were discovered and he had to spend another $600 for the brakes and suspension. To pass emission cost him $350 more for new catalytic converter and tune-up. Body repair added $500 on the top. And after one week of driving another problem came up - no compression in one of the cylinder. Another $700 flew away. Finally the total cost came to almost $4000 (plus new audio system, battery, etc.) and no one knows what and when will be broken next because usually once the car starts having problems, it never ends.
For this money, he could buy much better car in perfect condition certified and emission tested with no hassles and headaches. As a conclusion I'd suggest you to look not for the cheapest car available, but for a decent vehicle for reasonable price.

Secrets of an auto mechanic
By Kevin McDonald

Most of us would not take our car to just any auto mechanic. We want one who is trustworthy and will do the job right -- the first time. Though there are honest mechanics, sometimes finding one is harder than catching a fish without a hook.

Modern automobiles are so complicated that when ordinary Joes and Janes bring their cars in for service or repairs, they have trouble knowing if a mechanic is being truthful or taking them for a ride. Bankrate.com spoke to auto mechanics with more than 20 years of experience to learn what you should be aware of before handing your keys over to a guy with a wrench in his pocket. The simple inspection
The cleanliness of the shop is an indication of the quality of work you can expect. Because mechanics deal with oil and crud all day doesn't mean the shop should look like a pigsty. Today, cars and trucks are much more computerized than their predecessors. So you may want to see if the shop has the latest equipment to properly diagnose and service your car. But that's not all.

"The new technology is a help, but if you're not trained it can cause you to misdiagnose," says our expert, who spoke to us on condition that he remain anonymous.

Be wary of advertisements
Do you remember the old saying, "If it's too good to be true, it usually is"? The newspaper classifieds and mass-mail coupons are commonly stacked with places offering specials to fix brakes, transmissions or any other part. However, don't let your guard down so quickly. The special may not be work your car needs. What's more, the mechanic may be so focused on giving you what the ad specifically says that he may not check other vital components.

Read the owner's manual
Yes, you should read that dust-covered book that's stashed at the bottom of your glove compartment. It explains when to replace most engine parts. Many auto shops and dealers try to sell customers services they may not need. If you don't know when those parts need inspection or replacement, you'll take the bait. Deal with a qualified mechanic
Read the certificates hanging on the wall, and if there aren't any, you should worry. Look for the Automotive Service Excellence Blue Seal, which indicates technicians' competence in areas such as brake work, engine repair and alignment. A shop gets the ASE designation when 75 percent of their technicians are certified in one or more areas of repair work. Having the seal doesn't guarantee that a mechanic is honest, but at least he knows what he's doing.

"I would like to see consumers more aware of the car they're driving," our auto expert says. "Educating yourself is very important."Women beware
Another source who was a mechanic for 24 years adds a special warning to female customers."Mechanics take advantage of women -- that's standard," our source says. "That's because women are more inclined to believe you."Women are especially vulnerable to being sold new parts they don't need replaced. Our second insider says this is the most common questionable practice he saw mechanics pull on customers, both women and men."Sometimes a shop is having a promotion to sell or move car parts," our source explains. "They'll sell you stuff you don't really need. I've seen guys sell tires that way."They use fear, raising safety issues -- especially with female customers."Our source says it's rare to see a customer charged for a part that isn't replaced. However, it is common to be sold parts you don't really need.Most or least
The source says that when a car needs a repair, the customer wants the least amount of work done to fix it, while a mechanic wants to do the maximum. In this case, the mechanic isn't necessarily trying to rip off the customer. He just doesn't want something related to the problem to break a week later and then he has to fix it for free! "It's a genuine disagreement," the source says. "One viewpoint is: 'if it ain't broke, don't fix it.' The other is 'Sometimes doing the most expensive thing is, in the long run, the cheapest thing.'"Mechanics usually win that argument."There's a gap in knowledge," the source says. "The mechanic knows what's going on and the customer usually doesn't. Mechanics have an advantage, and they use it to take advantage of people."Keep in mind that mechanics don't know everything; sometimes they'll replace the wrong part thinking it will fix the problem. When it doesn't, the mechanic has to find the part that's really broken. And guess who pays for the extra parts and time?"In that case, a mechanic will tell a customer, "Look, when I was down there, I saw that the so-and-so was in terrible shape, and it needed to be fixed, too," the source says.Watch the dealer
All cars are not repaired equally, at least at dealerships. When a car is under warranty, the manufacturer sets the fee for the repair, our source explains. This means that mechanics make less money for those jobs than they do for non-warranty jobs. So the car ends up being repaired by the least-experienced mechanic. "Newer mechanics get caught with all the grunt work," the source says.This is why, when you have something on your car fixed under warranty, it might take a few trips to the dealer to get the job done right.Last bit of advice
Use common sense -- and your gut feeling -- when your car needs repair. "Judge for yourself whether the mechanic is telling the truth," the source says. "If in fact you don't believe him and your car can limp home, limp home."However, if you break down somewhere, don't expect mechanics to give you a break. "Basically, you're at their mercy," our source says.

GLOSSARY OF AUTO REPAIR SHOP TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

• ABS (Antilock Brake System)
  This is a safety arrangement that enables wheels to brake rapidly without locking and therefore causing a skid and loss of control. Computerized sensors monitor wheel speeds; and during sudden decelerations, will alter brake pressure rapidly by means of an electro-hydraulic system so that the vehicle can still be steered (to avoid obstacles) while braking.

• Adaptive Cruise Control
  An advanced computer system for speed organizing, which keeps a certain distance between one car and the car ahead of it on the road.

• Adaptive Suspension
  This is where the suspension system can be made more or less firm by a computer as the car travels along changeable road conditions.

• Air Bags
  Properly known as a ‘Supplemental Inflatable Restraint System’ (which is quite a mouthful - so no wonder everyone refers to it as an air bag); these are safety devices which inflate in an instant in the unfortunate event of a collision, to provide a cushioning effect which lessens the shock of impact.

  Air bags operate automatically when controlling sensors give the alert, though the presence of these in a car should not give people a false sense of security, which might make them not bother to wear seatbelts. The use of seat and shoulder belts will maximize the effectiveness of air bags.

• Air Injection
  This is an environmentally friendly measure which sends boosts of air into the exhaust of the engine, for purposes of burning off any fuel which escaped initial combustion, to make emissions `cleaner.’

• Alloy Wheels
  This is a term which is an example of how strange a language can sometimes be. It is used in everyday speach to denote any wheels that are made from a combination of metals (an alloy) rather than traditional steel, as most wheels are. However, steel is actually a combination of carbon and iron - and therefore is itself an alloy!

• All Wheel Drive (AWD)
  This is where all the wheels are utilized as active drive wheels for greater control in challenging road conditions. It works by dividing up the engine torque between the front and rear wheels in varying amounts depending on the needs.

  AWD is designed as an on-road control system and is therefore not the same as Four Wheel Drive (4WD or 4x4). (See also Torque).

• Alternator
  This is a generator powered by the engine that provides the electricity to power the car’s electrical components as well as for charging the battery.

• Axles
  Each axle (front and rear) holds the wheels in place and allows them to revolve. The word is derived from `axl’ which is an old English word meaning `shoulder.’

• Catalytic Converter
  The proper name for what is often known as a catalyst or sometimes just a cat. This is a device fitted to the exhaust and used for making the exhaust gases less harmful to the environment. It accomplishes this task by a process of chemical reactions that change the properties of the emissions but not the converter itself - hence it is a catalyst.

• Chassis
  This is the basic structure (frame) of an automobile.

• Clutchless Manual
  A hybrid gearing mechanism where, although it is an automatic transmission, the driver can himself / herself change gears manually in sequence.

• Coefficient of Drag (CD)
  This is a number that is a measure of an automobile’s resistance to the air it passes through, with lower numbers meaning the car has greater aerodynamic properties. It is one factor that influences the smoothness of ride and better fuel economy.

• Coolant
  Coolant is a water and anti-freeze mixture that takes heat away from the engine (to stop it overheating) and transports it to the air in the radiator.

• Composite Headlamps
  These are improved headlamps for enhanced illumination as compared to the standard sealed beam units. They often, but not always, contain replaceable halogen bulbs with separate acrylic lenses.

• Curb Weight
  This means the weight of any vehicle with a full tank of gas but without any load or passengers.

• Differential
  The differential is the gear assembly that connects to the drive shaft, or both sides of an axle. It transmits drive power to the wheel axles, and allows opposite wheels to turn at different speeds when the automobile turns a corner. (See also Drive Shaft, Drivetrain, and Transaxle).

• Disc Brakes
  A mechanism for braking where, what are called brake pads, are attached to a hydraulic caliper, which stands astride a disc attached to the wheel. The caliper can close in a vise-like grip to slow the disc and therefore the wheel.

  Experts say that disc brakes work better in wet driving conditions than drum brakes. (See Drum Brakes).

• Displacement
  The displacement of an engine, usually given in either cubic inches or liters, is a measure of the volume of its cylinders. How much air they can draw in is a theoretical gauge to both size and power output.

• Distributor
  Part of the ignition, which sends pulses of electricity to the spark plugs.

• Drag Coefficient (dc)
  See Coefficient Of Drag (CD).

• Drive Shaft
  The shaft that sends power through to the differential from the transmission in a standard rear wheel drive system. (See Differential, RWD, and Transaxle).

• Drivetrain
  Sometimes known as the powertrain, this is the collective name for all the components that are directly involved in the power production that is needed to get and keep the automobile moving. This includes the engine (obviously) as well as the likes of the clutch, transmission (or gearbox) driveshafts, differential, and wheel axles.

• Drum Brakes
  A braking system where a metal drum is attached to the wheel, and the rotation of this, and so the wheel, is slowed and halted by curved devices called brake shoes being pressed hard against the brake lining which causes friction on the inside of the drum.

• Dynamo
  See Alternator.

• Electrochromatic Mirror
  This is a rearview mirror that contains light sensitive properties, so that it can darken to avoid glare from following vehicles’ headlamps at night.

• Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
  There are different types of fuel injection systems, but all have replaced the carburetor for introducing fuel into the engine with much more precise control and timing. This has many advantages in fuel economy terms, as well as providing better engine performance and reliability, with lower exhaust emissions.

• Electronic Stability System
  These computerized systems aid safer driving by combating the effects of both understeer and oversteer. (See Oversteer and Understeer).

• FWD (Front Wheel Drive)
  In this arrangement, the motive force from the engine is applied the front wheels only rather that the rear wheels, as is the norm. FWD cars have benefits which include; more space at the back for passengers or load; and better grip in wet weather (because the front wheels are pressed down by the heavier weight of the engine). But FWD cars can also be inclined to understeer when driven with temper or haste. (See Understeer).

• Galvanized Steel
  This is steel that has been given a coating of zinc to prevent rusting.

• Gear Ratio
  This how many turns is required from a smaller pinion gear to power a driven gear through one full revolution. (See Pinion).

• Global Positioning System / Satellites (GPS)
  Originally developed for the military, this is a set of satellites that constantly broadcast signals down to earth which when received, are used to work out the exact geographical location of the receiver. This has recently appeared as an option for automobiles, and can also be referred to by the abbreviation satnav (satellite navigation) in many countries.

• Head Rest / Restraint
  A small padded and adjustable cushion which when present on a car seat can protect against whiplash injuries to the neck.

• Horsepower (hp)
  The standard unit for measuring engine power: 1 hp is the power required to lift 550 pounds of weight one foot high in a second.

• Independent Suspension
  This is where each wheel on an axle can move up and down at a different rate to the other, rather than always moving together.

• Metallic Paint
  A paint which contains tiny dots of metal in its makeup to give it extra quality.

• Normally Aspirated
  An engine that is not fitted with either a turbo or supercharger. (See Supercharger and Turbocharger).

• Overdrive
  This is the highest gear in a transmission that is used for reasons of fuel economy when at cruising speed (and not to make the car go faster, as is quite widely believed).

• Oversteer
  The opposite of understeer, this is when the vehicle turns much more than was desired by the driver. It is a condition more commonly found when cornering forcefully in RWD than FWD vehicles because sudden power to the rear wheels can cause them to slide sideways. (See also Electronic Stability System, FWD, RWD, and Understeer).

• Pearl Paint
  This car paint has minuscule flecks of mica in it to reflect light in a lustrous way that is particularly attractive to the eye. Mica is a group of mineral silicates, which form in hexagonally shaped plates of crystal.

• Pinion
  This is the name of a small-toothed driving gear which fits into a larger driven gear wheel called a rack or ring; as in rack and pinion steering, for the most well known example. (See Gear Ratio).

• Powertrain
  See Drivetrain.

• Push
  See Understeer.

• RWD (Rear Wheel Drive)
  This is where all the drive power needed for the car goes through the transmission to the rear axle, and so only rear wheels are powered, with the front wheels just being used for steering alone.

• SatNav
  See Global Positioning System / Satellites (GPS).

• Spoilers
  These are devices which improve tire traction (grip) by increasing what is known as downforce on a car. They improve braking, stability and cornering at speed by breaking up the clean aerodynamic lines of the bodywork, and using the force created as a vehicle passes through the air to press the car down onto the road.

• Standard
  This refers to equipment that is included in the base list price of an automobile.

• Supercharger
  This is a mechanism that pressurizes air to increase engine power, but unlike a turbocharger it is driven by a belt or gearing and thus though stronger, is more complex.

• Suspension
  This is the system of springs and shock absorbers etc. which suspend the automobile above the wheels, and prevent the occupants from bouncing around in their seats (unless they want to, but that’s another story entirely).

• Tachometer
  This sits on the instrument panel and shows the speed that the crankshaft is rotating at in RPM (revolutions per minute) to give a measure of how hard the engine is working.

• Torque
  This is a rotating or twisting force. Torque is what it’s all about; the engine power developed from the cylinders, rods and pistons is sent through to the crankshaft for converting into a rotating motion (torque) which then is used through the transmission (or gearbox) to get the wheels moving.

• Traction Control
  Having this system fitted helps to reduce wheel spin during acceleration, so allowing for improved driver control.

• Transaxle
  This mechanism combines the duties of a differential and a transmission, and is commonly used in front wheel drive (FWD) automobiles. Having a transaxle means that there is no need for the drive shafts which are used to connect the differential to the transmission in rear wheel drive (RWD) cars.

• Transmission
  This is the gearing, and is used for controlling the behavior of the engine. Turbocharger (Turbo)
  This piece of equipment is driven by flowing exhaust gases, and works to increase the power produced by the engine by allowing it to burn up more fuel than it ordinarily could. The turbocharger achieves this feat by pressurizing the air taken in by the engine - more air means more combustion, of more fuel.

• Understeer
  The opposite of oversteer, this is when a vehicle turns much less than the driver desired it to. This is a state of affairs that is more commonly encountered when cornering aggressively in FWD than RWD vehicles because sudden power to the front wheels can cause them to lose traction and push onwards without turning well. (See also Electronic Stability System, FWD, Oversteer, and RWD).

• Unibody Construction
  This is where the automobile’s bodywork does not have need of a separate frame for the providing of support to the car’s various mechanisms, because the frame and body have been merged into one.

• Weight Distribution
  A very important consideration for pickup trucks and the like, but also cars as well, this is how the total weight will be carried by each axle and tire. Components parts such as axles, springs, bearings, and tires will have much less of a service life if they have to bear more than an equal share of the load. The safety of the vehicle can also be compromised with a poor weight distribution.

• Wheelbase
  This is the distance between the front and rear wheels, measured from the center of each.
  
  
• VIN
  Acronym for Vehicle Identification Number. This is a unique number that identifies your vehicle. Although its primary purpose is to identify your vehicle, it often contains important information concerning the equipment and options that were installed on your vehicle at the factory. This information allows the Repair Center to order the correct parts for your vehicle. Any professional estimate or Repair Order will have this number on it.

Automobile

An automobile or motor car is a wheeled motor vehicle for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods. However, the term is far from precise because there are many types of vehicles that do similar tasks.

Automobile comes via the French language, from the Greek language by combining auto [self] with mobilis [moving]; meaning a vehicle that moves itself, rather than being pulled or pushed by a separate animal or another vehicle. The alternative name car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum [wheeled vehicle], or the Middle English word carre [cart] (from Old North French), and karros; a Gallic wagon.

As of 2002, there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car per eleven people).

History

Although Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in about 1769 by adapting an existing horse-drawn vehicle, this claim is disputed by some, who doubt Cugnot's three-wheeler ever ran or was stable. Others claim Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built the first steam-powered vehicle around 1672 which was of small scale and designed as a toy for the Chinese Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger, but quite possibly, was the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile'). What is not in doubt is that Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive in 1801, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle although it was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and would have been of little practical use.

In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearings; however, it was not developed further.

François Isaac de Rivaz, a Swiss inventor, designed the first internal combustion engine, in 1806, which was fueled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen and used it to develop the world's first vehicle, albeit rudimentary, to be powered by such an engine. The design was not very successful, as was the case with others such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by clumsy internal combustion engines.

In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile that was powered by electricity. This was at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.

Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern automobile.

An automobile powered by his own four-stroke cycle gasoline engine was built in Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885 and granted a patent in January of the following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883. It was an integral design, without the adaptation of other existing components and including several new technological elements to create a new concept. This is what made it worthy of a patent. He began to sell his production vehicles in 1888.

In 1879 Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle.

His first Motorwagon was built in 1885 and he was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on January 29, 1886. Benz began promotion of the vehicle on July 3, 1886 and approximately 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early automobiles, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.

In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called a boxermotor in German. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company.

Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (Daimler Motor Company, DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890 and under the brand name, Daimler, sold their first automobile in 1892, which was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, that they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after falling out with their backers. Benz and the Maybach and Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together because by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG.

Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes, that was placed in a specially-ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG automobile was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers.

Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands.

On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles Mercedes Benz as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929 and at times, his two sons participated in the management of the company as well.

In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines and so laid the foundation of the automobile industry in France.

The first design for an American automobile with a gasoline internal combustion engine was drawn in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent for an automobile in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built and proved to work (a requirement for a patent). After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application, on November 5, 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent (U.S. Patent 549,160 ) for a two-stroke automobile engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of automobiles in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.

In Britain there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860. Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894 followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895 but these were both one-offs. The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Motor Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896 after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first automobiles in 1897 and they bore the name Daimler.

In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897 he built the first Diesel Engine.[8] Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.

Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.

Production

The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory in 1902. This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1914.

As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing production by seven to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower. It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black". In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.

Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.

In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.

Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.

Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved.

Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate drivetrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.

In Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practise of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra had gone under. Citroen did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete. Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.

Fuel and propulsion technologies

Most automobiles in use today are propelled by gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel internal combustion engines, which are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming. Increasing costs of oil-based fuels, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles, and electric and hydrogen vehicles which do not release pollution into the air.

Petroleum fuels

Diesel

Diesel-engined cars have long been popular in Europe with the first models being introduced in the 1930s by Mercedes Benz and Citroen. The main benefit of diesel engines is a 50% fuel burn efficiency compared with 27% in the best gasoline engines. A down-side of the diesel is the presence in the exhaust gases of fine soot particulates and manufacturers are now starting to fit filters to remove these. Many diesel-powered cars can also run with little or no modifications on 100% biodiesel.

Gasoline

Gasoline engines have the advantage over diesel in being lighter and able to work at higher rotational speeds and they are the usual choice for fitting in high-performance sports cars. Continuous development of gasoline engines for over a hundred years has produced improvements in efficiency and reduced pollution. The carburetor was used on nearly all road car engines until the 1980s but it was long realised better control of the fuel/air mixture could be achieved with fuel injection. Indirect fuel injection was first used in aircraft engines from 1909, in racing car engines from the 1930s, and road cars from the late 1950s. Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) is now starting to appear in production vehicles such as the 2007 (Mark II) BMW Mini. Exhaust gases are also cleaned up by fitting a catalytic converter into the exhaust system. Clean air legislation in many of the car industries most important markets has made both catalysts and fuel injection virtually universal fittings. Most modern gasoline engines also are capable of running with up to 15% ethanol mixed into the gasoline - older vehicles may have seals and hoses that can be harmed by ethanol. With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. 100% ethanol is used in some parts of the world (such as Brazil), but vehicles must be started on pure gasoline and switched over to ethanol once the engine is running. Most gasoline engined cars can also run on LPG with the addition of an LPG tank for fuel storage and carburetion modifications to add an LPG mixer. LPG produces fewer toxic emissions and is a popular fuel for fork lift trucks that have to operate inside buildings.

Biofuels

Ethanol, other alcohol fuels (biobutanol) and biogasoline have widespread use an automotive fuel. Most alcohols have less energy per liter than gasoline and are usually blended with gasoline. Alcohols are used for a variety of reasons - to increase octane, to improve emissions, and as an alternative to petroleum based fuel, since they can be made from agricultural crops. Brazil's ethanol program provides about 20% of the nation's automotive fuel needs, as a result of the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country, 3 million cars that operate on pure ethanol, and 6 million dual or flexible-fuel vehicles sold since 2003. that run on any mix of ethanol and gasoline. The commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, have allowed sugarcane based ethanol fuel to achieve a 50% market share of the gasoline market by April 2008.

Electric

The first electric cars were built around 1832, well before internal combustion powered cars appeared. For a period of time electrics were considered superior due to the silent nature of electric motors compared to the very loud noise of the gasoline engine. This advantage was removed with Hiram Percy Maxim's invention of the muffler in 1897. Thereafter internal combustion powered cars had two critical advantages: 1) long range and 2) high specific energy (far lower weight of petrol fuel versus weight of batteries). The building of battery electric vehicles that could rival internal combustion models had to wait for the introduction of modern semiconductor controls and improved batteries. Because they can deliver a high torque at low revolutions electric cars do not require such a complex drive train and transmission as internal combustion powered cars. Some post-2000 electric car designs such as the Venturi Fétish are able to accelerate from 0-60 mph (96 km/h) in 4.0 seconds with a top speed around 130 mph (210 km/h). Others have a range of 250 miles (400 km) on the EPA highway cycle requiring 3-1/2 hours to completely charge. Equivalent fuel efficiency to internal combustion is not well defined but some press reports give it at around 135 miles per US gallon (57 km/l/162 mpg-imp).

Steam

Steam power, usually using an oil- or gas-heated boiler, was also in use until the 1930s but had the major disadvantage of being unable to power the car until boiler pressure was available (although the newer models could achieve this in well under a minute). It has the advantage of being able to produce very low emissions as the combustion process can be carefully controlled. Its disadvantages include poor heat efficiency and extensive requirements for electric auxiliaries.

Air

A compressed air car is an alternative fuel car that uses a motor powered by compressed air. The car can be powered solely by air, or by air combined (as in a hybrid electric vehicle) with gasoline/diesel/ethanol or electric plant and regenerative braking. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it to drive pistons with hot expanding gases; compressed air cars use the expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. Several prototypes are available already and scheduled for worldwide sale by the end of 2008. Companies releasing this type of car include Tata Motors and Motor Development International (MDI).

Gas turbine

In the 1950s there was a brief interest in using gas turbine engines and several makers including Rover and Chrysler produced prototypes. In spite of the power units being very compact, high fuel consumption, severe delay in throttle response, and lack of engine braking meant no cars reached production.

Rotary (Wankel) engines

Rotary Wankel engines were introduced into road cars by NSU with the Ro 80 and later were seen in the Citroën GS Birotor and several Mazda models. In spite of their impressive smoothness, poor reliability and fuel economy led to them largely disappearing. Mazda, beginning with the R100 then RX-2, has continued research on these engines, overcoming most of the earlier problems with the RX-7 and RX-8.

Rocket and jet cars

A rocket car holds the record in drag racing. However, the fastest of those cars are used to set the Land Speed Record, and are propelled by propulsive jets emitted from rocket, turbojet, or more recently and most successfully turbofan engines. The ThrustSSC car using two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans with reheat was able to exceed the speed of sound at ground level in 1997.

Safety

There are three main statistics to which automobile safety can be compared:

While road traffic injuries represent the leading cause in worldwide injury-related deaths, their popularity undermines this statistic.

Mary Ward became one of the first documented automobile fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland and Henry Bliss one of the United State's first pedestrian automobile casualties in 1899 in New York. There are now standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests, as well as insurance-backed IIHS tests.

Economics and impacts

Cost and benefits of usage

The costs of automobile usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel, depreciation, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes and insurance, are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits - perceived and real - of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience.

Cost and benefits to society

Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, land use, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates. The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature of societies.

Impacts on society and environment

Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has got worse over the last decade. In the United States the average passenger car emits 11,450 lbs (5 tonnes) of carbon dioxide, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen. Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to die in car collisions, which kill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number. Sprawl is more broadly a factor in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.

Improving the positive and reducing the negative impacts

Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution. In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the 27.5 miles per US gallon (11.7 km/l/33.0 mpg imp) standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at 22.2 miles per US gallon (9.4 km/l/26.7 mpg imp) in 2007. Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than conventional petroleum powered vehicles.

Future car technologies

Automobile propulsion technology under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in hybrids, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels.

Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines, and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen.

New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbon nanotubes.

Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through such schemes as City Car Club in the UK, Mobility in mainland Europe, and Zipcar in the US.

Alternatives to the automobile

Auto mechanic

An auto mechanic (or car mechanic in British English and motor mechanic in Australian English) is a mechanic who specializes in automobile maintenance, repair, and sometimes modification. A mechanic may be knowledgeable in working on all parts of a variety of car makes or may specialize either in a specific area or in a specific make of car. In repairing cars, their main role is to diagnose the problem accurately and quickly. They often have to quote prices for their customers before commencing work or after partial disassembly for inspection. The mechanic uses both electronic means of gathering data as well as their senses. Their job may involve the repair of a specific part or the replacement of one or more parts as assemblies.

Basic vehicle maintenance is a fundamental part of a mechanic's work in some countries, while in others they are only consulted when a vehicle is already showing signs of malfunction. Preventative maintenance is also a fundamental part of a mechanic's job, but this is not possible in the case of vehicles that are not regularly maintained by a mechanic. One misunderstood aspect of preventative maintenance is scheduled replacement of various parts, which occurs before failure to avoid far more expensive damage. Because this means that parts are replaced before any problem is observed, many vehicle owners will not understand why the expense is necessary.

With the rapid advancement in technology, the mechanic's job has evolved from purely mechanical, to include electronic technology. Because vehicles today possess complex computer and electronic systems, mechanics need to have a broader base of knowledge than in the past. Lately, the term "auto mechanic" is being used less and less frequently and is being replaced by the euphemistic title “automotive service technician”. Fading quickly is the day of the 'shade tree mechanic', who needed little knowledge of today's computerized systems.

Due to the increasingly labyrinthine nature of the technology that is now incorporated into automobiles, most automobile dealerships now provide sophisticated diagnostic computers to each technician, without which they would be unable to diagnose or repair a vehicle.

Automotive industry

The automotive industry is the industry involved in the design, development, manufacture, marketing, and sale of motor vehicles. In 2007, more than 73 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide.

In 2007, a total of 71.9 million new automobiles were sold worldwide: 22.9 million in Europe, 21.4 million in Asia-Pacific, 19.4 million in USA and Canada, 4.4 million in Latin America, 2.4 million in the Middle East and 1.4 million in Africa. The markets in North America and Japan were stagnant, while those in South America and Asia grew strongly. Of the major markets, Russia, Brazil and China saw the most rapid growth.

In 2008, with rapidly rising oil prices, industries such as the automotive industry, are experiencing a combination of pricing pressures from raw material costs and changes in consumer buying habits. The industry is also facing increasing external competition from the public transport sector, as consumers re-evaluate their private vehicle usage.

World motor vehicle production

[hide] « previous year Top 20 motor vehicle producing countries 2007
Motor vehicle production (1000 units)
Country	1000										2000										3000										4000										5000										6000										7000										8000										9000										10000										11000										12000
Japan																																																																	11596
United States																																																																	10781
PR China																																																																	8882
Germany																																																															6213 (includes GM Belgium)
South Korea																																										4086
France																															3019
Brazil																															2971
Spain																														2890
Canada																											2578
India																								2307
Mexico																						2095
UK																			1750
Russia																		1660
Italy														1284
Thailand													1238
Turkey												1099
Iran											997
Czech Rep.										939
Belgium									844
Poland									785
Reference: "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country: 2006–2007". OICA. Retrieved on 2008-03-18.

Top vehicle manufacturing groups (by volume)

The table below shows the world's largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the marques produced by each one. The table is ranked by the latest production figures from OICA 2007 for the parent group, and then by marque.

Marque	Country of origin	Ownership	Markets
1. Toyota Motor Corporation ( Japan)
Daihatsu		Subsidiary	Global, except North America
Hino		Subsidiary	Asia Pacific, Canada, South America
Lexus		Division	Global, apart from South America with the exception of Chile and Argentina.
Scion		Division	United States
Toyota		Division	Global
2. General Motors Corporation ( United States)
Buick		Division	North America, China
Cadillac		Division	Global
Chevrolet		Division	Global
Daewoo		Subsidiary	Asia, Europe, South America
GMC		Division	North America, Middle East
Holden		Subsidiary	Australia, New Zealand, Middle East
Hummer		Division	Global
Pontiac		Division	North America
Opel		Subsidiary	Continental Europe, South Africa, apart from Asia, with the exception of Japan
Saab (cars)		Subsidiary	Global
Saturn		Subsidiary	North America, Japan, Republic of China
Vauxhall		Subsidiary	United Kingdom
3. Volkswagen Group (Volkswagen AG) ( Germany)
Audi		Subsidiary	Global
Bentley		Subsidiary	Global
Bugatti		Subsidiary	Global
Lamborghini		Subsidiary	Global
Scania		Subsidiary	Global
SEAT		Subsidiary	Europe, Latin America, South Africa
Škoda		Subsidiary	Global, except North America
Volkswagen		Subsidiary	Global
4. Ford Motor Company ( United States)
Ford		Division	Global
Lincoln		Division	North America, Middle East
Mercury		Division	North America, Middle East
Troller		Subsidiary	South America
Volvo		Subsidiary	Global
5. Honda Motor Company ( Japan)
Acura		Division	North America, China
Honda		Division	Global
6. PSA Peugeot Citroën ( France)
Citroën		Subsidiary	Global, except North America
Peugeot		Subsidiary	Global, except United States and Canada
7. Nissan Motors ( Japan)
Infiniti		Division	North America, Middle East, Taiwan, Korea
Nissan		Division	Global
8. Fiat S.p.A. ( Italy)
Abarth		Subsidiary	Global, except United States and Canada
Alfa Romeo		Subsidiary	Global, Canada (the 8C is sold in the USA)
Ferrari		Subsidiary	Global
Fiat		Division	Global, except United States and Canada
Iveco		Subsidiary	Global, except North America
Lancia		Subsidiary	Global, except North America
Maserati		Subsidiary	Global
9. Renault S.A. ( France)
Dacia		Subsidiary	Europe, Latin America, Asia, Africa
Renault (cars)		Division	Global, except United States and Canada
Renault Samsung		Subsidiary	Asia, South America
10. Hyundai Motor Company ( South Korea)
Hyundai		Division	Global
11. Suzuki Motor Corporation ( Japan)
Maruti Suzuki		Subsidiary	India, Middle East, South America
Suzuki		Division	Global
12. Chrysler LLC ( United States)
Chrysler		Division	Global
Dodge		Division	Global
Jeep		Division	Global
13. Daimler AG ( Germany)
Freightliner		Subsidiary	North America, South Africa
Maybach		Division	Global
Mercedes-Benz		Division	Global
Mitsubishi Fuso		Subsidiary	Global
Smart		Division	Western Europe, Southeast Asia, North America, South Africa
14. BMW AG ( Germany)
BMW		Division	Global
MINI		Division	Global
Rolls-Royce		Subsidiary	Global
15. Mitsubishi Motors Corporation ( Japan)
Mitsubishi		Division	Global
16. Kia Motors ( South Korea)
Kia		Subsidiary	Global
17. Mazda Motor Corporation ( Japan)
Mazda		Division	Global
18. AvtoVAZ ( Russia)
Lada		Division	Russia, Finland, Sweden
VAZ		Division	Russia, Eastern Europe
19. First Automobile Works ( People's Republic of China)
Besturn		Division	China
Hongqi		Division	China
Huali		Subsidiary	China
Xiali		Subsidiary	China
20. Tata Motors Limited ( India)
Hispano		Subsidiary	Europe
Jaguar		Subsidiary	Global
Land Rover		Subsidiary	Global
Tata		Division	India, South Africa
Tata Daewoo		Subsidiary	South Korea
21. Fuji Heavy Industries ( Japan)
Subaru		Division	Global
22. Chang'an Motors ( People's Republic of China)
Chana		Division	China, South Africa
23. Isuzu Motors ( Japan)
Isuzu		Division	Global
24. Beijing Automotive Industry Holding Corporation ( People's Republic of China)
BAW		Subsidiary	China
25. Dongfeng Motor Corporation ( People's Republic of China)
Dongfeng		Division	China
26. Chery Automobile ( People's Republic of China)
Chery		Division	China, South Africa, Southeast Asia except Thailand
27. Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation ( People's Republic of China)
MG		Subsidiary	UK
Roewe		Division	China
SsangYong		Subsidiary	South Korea, South Africa
28. Brilliance China Automotive Holdings ( People's Republic of China)
Brilliance		Division	China
Jinbei		Subsidiary	China
29. GAZ ( Russia)
GAZ		Division	Russia
LDV		Subsidiary	Europe
LiAZ		Subsidiary	Russia
30. Volvo Group ( Sweden)
Mack		Subsidiary	Global
Renault (trucks)		Subsidiary	Global
Nissan Diesel		Subsidiary	Global
Volvo (trucks)		Division	Global
31. Harbin Hafei Automobile Industry Group ( People's Republic of China)
Hafei		Division	China
32. Geely Automobile ( People's Republic of China)
Geely		Division	China
Maple		Subsidiary	China
33. Anhui Jianghuai Automobile ( People's Republic of China)
JAC		Division	China
34. Mahindra & Mahindra Limited ( India)
Mahindra		Division	India
35. Paccar Inc ( United States)
DAF		Subsidiary	Global except United States and Canada
Kenworth		Division	North America
Leyland		Subsidiary	Europe
Peterbilt		Division	North America
36. Great Wall Motor ( People's Republic of China)
Great Wall		Division	China
37. Jiangxi Changhe ( People's Republic of China)
Changhe		Division	China
38. Porsche ( Germany)
Porsche		Division	Global
39. BYD Auto ( People's Republic of China)
BYD		Division	China
40. China National Heavy Duty Truck Group ( People's Republic of China)
CNHTC		Division	China

Note 1: The OICA statistics rank the Toyota subsidiary companies Daihatsu and Hino separately; in this table they are included with Toyota.

Note 2: Ford and Renault own the rights to the Volvo and Renault marques for cars only; Volvo Group owns the rights to both marques for trucks

Company relationships

It is not uncommon for automobile manufacturers to hold stakes in other automobile manufacturers. These ownerships can be explored under the detail for the individual companies.

Notable current relationships include:

* Porsche holds a 42.6% stake in the Volkswagen Group
* The Renault-Nissan alliance involves two global companies linked by cross-shareholding, with Renault holding 44.3% of Nissan shares, and Nissan holding 15% of (non-voting) Renault shares.
* Ford holds a 33.9% stake in Mazda. and an 8.3% share in Aston Martin.
* Hyundai Motor Co. holds a 38.67% stake in Kia Motors.
* Daimler AG holds a 19.9% stake in Chrysler Holding LLC.
* General Motors still holds a 3% stake in Suzuki. Suzuki is also partner with GM in GMDAT and CAMI.
* The Volkswagen Group holds a 37.73% stake in Scania (68.6% voting rights).
* Renault holds 20.5% of the voting stakes in Volvo Group.
* Toyota holds a 51% stake in Daihatsu hence having a controlling interest in the company, and 16.5% in Fuji Heavy Industries, parent company of Subaru.

List of automobiles sales by model

This is a list of automobiles sales by model since the introduction of the Benz Patent Motorwagen in 1886. Wherever possible, references to verify the claims have been included, however even figures given by manufacturers may have a degree of inaccuracy or hyperbole. Also note that a single vehicle can be sold concurrently under several nameplates in different markets, as with for example the Nissan Sunny; in such circumstances manufacturers often provide only cumulative sales figures for all models. As a result, there is no definitive standard for measuring sales.

Vehicles listed in italics are those who achieved their figures through sales of a single generation without any major redesign. The most common distinction is to refer to these specifically as the "bestselling vehicles", as opposed to "bestselling nameplates", where sales have been achieved through perpetuation of the brand name across several unrelated generations of automobiles.

The two vehicles most frequently cited as the bestselling automobiles in the world are the Toyota Corolla and the Volkswagen Beetle.

A

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	AMC Gremlin	1970–78	671,475 of a single generation.
	Audi A3	1996–present	Approximately 1,500,000 in two generations to June 2006.
	Autobianchi A112	1969–86	1,254,178; also marketed as Lancia A112 in some markets and periods.

B

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	BMW 3 series	1975–present	Over 9,500,000 in the first four generations to 2005. The bestselling vehicle from a premium brand.
	Buick Apollo	1973–75	23,379 produced.
	Buick Centurion	1971–73	110,809 built.
	Buick Electra	1959–90	2,154,856 produced through 1979.
	Buick Invicta	1959–63	186,507 built over two generations.
	Buick LeSabre	1959–2005	Over 6,000,000.
	Buick Riviera	1963–99	1,127,261 built over eight generations.
	Buick Wildcat	1963–70	492,040 produced over two generations.

C

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Chevrolet Camaro	1967–2002	Almost 4,800,000 in four generations.
	Chevrolet Cavalier	1982–2005	Estimated to be over 6,000,000 in three generations; 5,210,123 were sold up to 1999.
	Chevrolet Corvair	1960–69	1,835,170 in a two generations despite an abrupt end to production.
	Chevrolet Corvette	1953–present	1,302,401 of the first five generations sold to 2003.
	Chevrolet Impala	1958–present	Over 13,000,000 between its introduction and 1996; the bestselling full-size car in history, and the bestselling car in America in a single year (more than one million in 1965).
	Chevrolet Vega	1971–77	2,113,909 as a Vega or Pontiac Astre.
	Chrysler minivans	1984–present	Over 11,000,000 across three marques up to 2005; Chrysler (Town and Country, Voyager), Dodge (Caravan) and Plymouth (Voyager).
	Citroën 2CV	1948–90	3,872,583 in a single design; including commercial variants, the total figure is approximately nine million.
	Citroën DS	1955–76	1,455,746; sold 12,000 in a single day upon release at the 1955 Paris Motor Show.

D

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Dodge Aries/Plymouth Reliant	1981–89	Known as the 'K-cars' after their common platform; 972,216 in a single generation between the two marques.

F

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Ferrari 360	1999–2004	Bestselling Ferrari in history; over 17,000 coupés and convertibles.
	Fiat 127	1971–83	Fiat's first supermini, 3,730,000, not including sales of licensed or derivative versions by SEAT and Zastava.
	Fiat 500	1957–75	Known as the Nuova to distinguish it from the earlier Topolino; 3,600,000 in a single design.
	Fiat Punto	1993–present	Over 6,000,000 up to 2005.
	Fiat Uno	1983–present	Approximately 8,800,000 worldwide to 2004;sold over six million in Europe before being replaced by the Punto in 1995.
	Ford Cortina	1962–82	Over 4,300,000 in five generations.
	Ford Crown Victoria	1955–56, 1980–present	Over 5,000,000.
	Ford E-Series	1961–present	Formerly known as the Econoline; over 5,000,000.]
	Ford Escort	1968–2003	Almost 20,000,000 worldwide; Ford's bestselling car nameplate.
	Ford Explorer	1991–present	Over 5,500,000 in four generations.
	Ford F-Series	1948–present	America's bestselling vehicle for 23 consecutive years;over 29,000,000 in eleven generations to May 2004.
	Ford Falcon	1960–present	Over 3,000,000 in six generations to 2003, almost exclusively in Australia and New Zealand.
	Ford Fiesta	1976–present	Over 12,000,000 in six generations
	Ford Focus	1998–present	Over 5,000,000 in two generations.
	Ford Model A	1927–31	4,320,446 sales for the successor to the Ford Model T.
	Ford Model T	1908–27	16,500,000; the second bestselling single design, and the first to sell five, ten and fifteen million cars.
	Ford Mustang	1964–present	Over 8,000,000 in five generations.
	Ford Ranger	1983–2003	Over 5,000,000.]
	Ford Taurus	1986–present	Approximately 6,700,000 in four generations.

H

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Hindustan Ambassador	1958–present	Indian-built version of the Morris Oxford; almost 4,000,000 in a single generation to 2004.
	Holden Commodore	1978–present	2,500,000 in the first four generations up to 2008.
	Honda Accord	1976–present	Over 8,000,000 of the first six generations up to 2002 in North America, not including global sales elsewhere.
	Honda Civic	1972–present	Over 16,500,000 in eight generations.
	Honda CR-V	1996–present	Approximately 2,500,000 to September 2006, claims to be the bestselling "entry level crossover SUV".
	Honda Fit	2001–present	Over 1,000,000 in a single generation, including export sales as the Honda Jazz; the bestselling car in Japan, and the first in that country to outsell the Toyota Corolla since 1969.
	Honda S500	1963–64	1,363 during eleven months of production.
	Honda S600	1964–66	13,084; 11,284 convertibles and 1,800 coupes in three years of production.
	Honda S800	1966–70	11,536 from its introduction in 1966 until production ceased in May 1970.
	Hyundai Elantra	1991–present	1,000,000 in the first three generations to 2006.

J

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Jeep Cherokee (XJ)	1984–present	2,884,172 in North America until 2001; production continues in China.

L

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Lada Riva	1980–present	13,500,000 until exports to Europe were discontinued in 1997; production continues in both Russia and Egypt.
	La Marquise	1884	1. Sold to to a French army officer, Henri Doriol, in 1906.
	Lamborghini Gallardo	2004–present	Bestselling Lamborghini in history; over 5,000 coupés and convertibles to 2007.
	Lamborghini Diablo	1990–2001	2,903.
	Lancia Dedra	1989–2000	418,084 in a single generation.
	Lincoln Town Car	1981–present	One of the bestselling luxury cars in the United States. 944,030 were sold between 1994 and 2005.
	Lotus Elise	1996–present	Lotus Cars' bestseller; 17,000 in two generations to August 2004.

M

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Maruti 800	1984–present	Rebadged Suzuki Alto, and the bestselling car in India; 2,400,000 of a single generation.
	Mazda 6	2002–present	Mazda's previous fastest seller; 1,000,000 in four years.
	Mazda Axela	2003–present	Mazda's fastest ever seller, 1,000,000 in three years; known as the Mazda 3 in most markets outside Japan.
	Mazda Familia	1963–2003	Also badged as the Protegé and 323; over 10,000,000 in the first eight generations to 1995.
	Mazda MPV	1988–present	1,000,000 in three generations
	Mazda MX-5	1989–present	Also known as the Miata and Eunos Roadster; almost 750,000 in the first two generations to 2005, verified by the Guinness Book of Records as the bestselling two-seater sports car in history.
	Mercedes-Benz C-Class	1993–present	6,900,000 to November 2006
	Mercedes-Benz S-Class	1965–present	Approximately 4,000,000 of the first five generations to 2006 since the Mercedes-Benz W108; the world's bestselling premium automobile.
	Mercedes-Benz W201	1983–93	Known as the Mercedes 190; 1,879,629 in a single generation.
	Mini	1959–2000	The bestselling British-made car; 5,505,874 in a single design.
	Mitsubishi Carisma	1995–2004	Over 350,000 in nine years.
	Mitsubishi Galant	1969–present	Estimated to be over 5,000,000 in nine generations; up to 1997, 4.9 million were sold.
	Mitsubishi Lancer	1973–present	Over 6,000,000 in the first seven generations to the end of 2006.
	Mitsubishi L200	1978–present	Over 2,800,000 in the first three generations
	Mitsubishi Pajero	1982–present	Also known as the Montero and Shogun in various export markets; approximately 2,500,000 of the first three generations.
	Morris Minor	1948–71	1,368,291 in a single generation of saloons, estates, vans, pickup trucks and convertibles.

N

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Nissan Maxima	1981–present	1,700,000 in the first five generations up to 2001.
	Nissan Sunny/Sentra/Pulsar/Almera	1966–present	Over 15,900,000 in ten generations.
	Nissan Z-cars	1969–98, 2003–present	1,535,000 in five generations up to 2005; Japan's bestselling sports car.

O

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Oldsmobile Cutlass	1961–99	11,900,000 across several platforms and generations.
	Opel Ascona	1970–88	4,400,000 in three generations, including the UK-market Vauxhall Cavalier, and the South African-market Chevrolet Ascona.
	Opel Astra	1991–present	Over 7,000,000 of the first two generations up to 2001, not including Kadett-based Astra in UK from 1984.
	Opel Corsa	1982–present	Over 11,000,000 in three generations up to 2002, including "Corsa-based vehicles".
	Opel Vectra	1988–present	4,500,000 in the first two generations up to 2002, also including UK sales as the Vauxhall Cavalier.

P

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Peugeot 205	1983–98	Over 5,278,000 in a single generation.
	Peugeot 206	1998–present	Approximately 5,400,000 in a single generation to 2006; PSA Peugeot Citroën's bestselling car.
	Peugeot 504	1968–2006	More than 3,000,000 built in France, Argentina, China, Kenya and Nigeria.
	Plymouth Reliant	1981–89	972,216; see Dodge Aries.
	Pontiac Firebird	1967–2002	Approximately 2,500,000 in four generations.
	Pontiac Grand Am	1973–75, 1978–80, 1985–2006	Pontiac's bestselling nameplate; over 4,000,000 in five generations.

R

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Renault 4	1961–92	Over 8,000,000 of a single design.
	Renault 4CV	1946–61	1,105,547 of a single design; the first French car to achieve more than one million sales.
	Renault 5	1972–96	5,471,709 in two generations.
	Renault Clio	1991–present	The bestselling French car; 8,535,280 in the first two generations up to 2005.
	Renault Twingo	1993–present	Over 2,400,000 of the monobox city car designed by Patrick le Quément.
	Rover Metro	1980–98	First sold as the Austin Mini Metro and later Rover 100; 2,078,718.

S

Image	Automobile	Production	Sales
	Saab 900	1978–93	Saab's bestseller; 908,810 in a single generation of sedans, hatchbacks and convertibles.
	Simca 1000	1961–78	1,935,098.
	Simca 1100	1967–85	2,139,400, including a small amount of CKD kits and commercial versions; in later years the vehicle was sold as the Talbot-Simca 1100.
	Subaru Legacy	1988–present	Over 3,000,000 in four generations to 2005, including Australian sales as the Subaru Liberty.
	Suzuki Wagon R	1993–present	Japan's bestselling kei car; over 2,500,000 in three generations to June 2006.

T